Self-Study Course
Lesson 2: Skills for Learning
In the last lesson we determined what your
learning talents are, and you planned out
your personal study course. In this lesson
you will develop the skills necessary to
actually learn independently. Let us begin
right away.
Keeping a Notebook
- What does it mean to learn? Look up the word
in a dictionary. Write down the definition.
According to the Merriam-Webster's Collegiate
Dictionary 10th Edition the definition
that
seems most appropriate is, "Knowledge
or skill acquired by instruction or study."
Since this is a self-study course we will
amend this to, "knowledge or skill
acquired
by study." This then will be what
we
understand when the word learn is used. Whenever a new word is encountered
you must attempt to define it as much as
possible. When the meaning of a word is
based
on the concept you have of it, that definition
is called conceptual. If the meaning describes how we want something
to behave or how it will be used it is
called
a behavioral definition. Whenever we decide upon a meaning for a
word that tells us what needs to be done
to perform a measurement we are creating
an operational definition. A definition need not be perfect or complete,
it is simply what we are using for now.
It
is likely that most definitions will change
over time.
- We have arrived at the point of the first
necessary expense for this course: Go out
and buy some loose-leaf paper or one or
more
pads, a new notebook for your learning
project,
and a pen or a few pencils. This notebook
need be nothing more than a cheap legal
pad,
a spiral notebook, or the like. I prefer
to purchase bound sketchbooks. The reason
for this is if I am going to invest considerable
time and effort on a project I want the
results
to last for a while. My work, and yours
too,
deserve to be preserved in such a notebook.
These can be purchased for around $10 at
most bookstores.
- Write your name and the working title of
your learning project on page 1. If the
pages
are not prenumbered, write the page number
too. As you enter more things into your
notebook
keep adding page numbers as necessary.
As
you add new things to your notebook, keep
a separate list of the subjects and their
pages, so that you can find things when
you
need them later. This is a sort of index/table
of contents for your notebook. If you keep
your index on a computer, then you will
want
to keep a printout of it near the actual
notebook.
- On a piece of loose-leaf paper write the
word "knowledge." Now attempt
to
develop, using whatever means available
to
you, a definition of the word knowledge.
- Develop a definition for the word "skill."
- Develop a definition for the word "study."
- Now think about the goal of your learning
project. Can you develop a definition of
it? If so, write that as the first entry
in your notebook. The format of such a definition
should be to write out the idea first and
the name second. For example, using the definition
of learning you would write something like,
"The acquisition of knowledge or skills
by study is the act of learning." Get
used to this format, ideas are more important
than the words used to convey them. Words
are, after all, only symbols for the ideas
they contain, and the words can change.
Begin your study. Collect the sources of
information that you want to use for your
project.
Critical Thinking Skills
- All too often we use terms that we think
we understand, when in reality we have simply
heard the word used in context so often it
seems to be understood. Every time you encounter
a new word attempt to define it. It is important
to define terms in this way before you use
them. Guess it if you have to. This way you
avoid being misled by technical terms. Do
not expect your definition to be correct
the first time. Come back to it as you learn
more and refine the definition from ever
more sophisticated viewpoints.
- Every time you encounter a fact or an idea
write down your understanding of it. What
is the justification of that idea? Why should
you believe it? What is the proof of it,
if there is any? If the idea is conjecture,
what is the justification for it? How do
we know this to be true? Write the answer
to these questions in your notebook. If you
are unable to answer these questions, then
you do not truly understand the idea and
you need to dig deeper.
- When you encounter an idea return to your
notebook to see how it relates to other similar
ideas you have encountered. How is it similar?
How is it different? Write out these connections
as you find them. In this way your notebook
becomes a vital tool to help you learn. Return
to your notebook frequently to look for such
connections. Do this even after your learning
project has "ended."
- A predictive statement of the form, "If
this is true, then this other thing must
be true," is an inference, sometimes it is called an implication. To do science we must be good at this sort
of thing. When you encounter an idea try
to make such statements and write them
into
your notebook. Can you make an argument
that
verifies your inference? If there are two
or more possible explanations for some
observation
or idea, can you determine which is correct?
If not, do you need more information? If
so, what information do you need? Can you
think of how to get this? Write all of
these
things down in your notebook.
- When you encounter an idea or fact, can you
tell if it is based on some observation of
reality? Or is it based on inference from
other ideas? If the basis is observational
then you know you are dealing with something
from nature, and it is ultimately from reality.
This is very important and you should write
that in your notebook. Ideas based on inference
from other ideas can be wonderful, but do
not always tells about reality. This too
should be written down in your notebook.
- When you encounter an idea or an argument,
can you determine their underlying assumptions?
What are they? Make a list of such assumptions
your notebook.
- When you encounter an idea is it the result
of applying a specific idea to more general
situations? Such an application is called
induction. Or is it a case where general ideas are
applied to specific situations? This type
of application is called deduction. You induce from the specific to the general,
and you deduce from the general to the specific.
In either case careful note should be made
of the line of reasoning used. Are there
flaws in the reasoning (see Logical Fallacies
below)? What are they?
- Given that certain facts will be established
in the course of your study, make some predictions
by applying what you have learned to situations
not covered by your study so far. What do
you predict will happen in these situations?
Can you verify these predictions? Write all
of your results down in your notebook.
- Inevitably you will encounter gaps in your
available information. This is true in school,
and it is especially true in self-study.
You will certainly encounter a situation
where a fact or idea is put forward without
complete information. This should not become a roadblock! To settle such occurances we note our ignorance
and make an assumption that temporarily settles
the matter until we can get back to it. So,
when we encounter such confused issues do
two things: first, make a note of the ambiguity
that you are encountering; and second; determine
what information or assumption on your part
needs to be provided to settle it; and move
on.
- In all cases where you develop your own ideas
you should ALWAYS attempt to verify your results. Can you
show that your ideas are based from observation?
From conjecture? What is the line of reasoning
that supports your idea? Can you prove it?
- In doing science we try to understand nature.
The first step in this is to remove all complications
and treat the object of study in the most
simple and abstract way possible. Then we
explore this idealized idea until we think
we understand it. Beginning with such idealized
and oversimplified ideas can you slowly add
levels of complexity and reality until you
develop your ideas into deep levels of understanding?
Write such things into your notebook
A word about morale and getting good at this
stuff. Do not expect to do this all correctly
the first time. Be patient with yourself.
The learning process is long and hard
Logical Fallacies
We must avoid logical traps in our reasoning
too. Below is a list of common fallacies
that plague reasoning. When you develop an
argument to support an idea of yours check
through these to see if you are basing your
argument on any of them. Care must be used
with this list, as some of these can be used
properly if extreme care is taken.
- Appeal to accident. Here you generalize from
an exceptional case.
- Appeal to authority. Here you argue from
credentials rather than reason. Note that
this is not always invalid; in the case where
an expert is necessary, for example.
- Appeal to force. Here you attempt to intimidate
others into accepting your argument.
- Appeal to ignorance. There are two forms
of this fallacy. An argument is true because
it cannot be proved false. An argument is
false because it cannot be proved true.
- Appeal to pity. Here you attempt to garner
sympathy to support your position, rather
than argue reasonably.
- Appeal to popular opinion. Another way of
saying this is, "Proof by survey."
Instead of trying to prove your argument
by reason, you make a statement that so many
others believe it, that it must be true.
- Appeal to tradition. Here you argue that
something is true because, "...it has
always been done that way."
- Argument ad Homonim. Here you attempt to
attack the arguer, not the argument.
- Argument by anecdote. Here you base your
argument on a single example.
- Argument by false analogy. Here you attempt
to frame an argument by comparing it to something
that is out of touch with its true meaning.
- Argument by false dichotomy. Here you artificially
limit the choices of argument to two possible
outcomes.
- Argument from averages. Here you assume that
a generalization is true in all cases.
- Argument from selected instances. Here you
accept evidence that supports your case while
rejecting any that contradicts it.
- Circular argument. Here you include the conclusion
as part of the premise.
- Fallacy of ambiguity. Here you set out to
confuse an argument by improper application
of words or grammar.
- Ignoratio Elenchi. Here you attempt to argue
that your case is true by appealing to some
other conclusion entirely.
- Incomplete comparison. Here you force someone
to make a decision based on an incomplete
list of options.
- Oversimplification. Here you require a yes/no
or true/false answer to a complicated question.
- Post hoc error. Accepting a cause and effect
relationship only based upon a relationship
in time, without supportive evidence.
- Slippery slope. Here you argue that making
a small concession will result in more serious
concessions later on without supporting evidence.
- Straw man. Here you reshape the argument
of someone else to knock it down.
Now that you have completed each of these
tasks it is time to move on to lesson 3,
where we learn to actually use all of this
stuff.
To return to the Self-Study Course Homepage
click here.